LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

The Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator , intended to collide opposing particle beams , protons at an energy of 7 TeV /particle or lead nuclei at 574 TeV/particle.

The Large Hadron Collider was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) with the intention of testing various predictions of high-energy physics , including the existence of the hypothesised Higgs boson and of the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetry . It lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres (17 mi) in circumference, as much as 175 metres (570 ft) beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva , Switzerland . It is funded by and built in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.

On 10 September 2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC for the first time. On 19 September 2008, the operations were halted due to a serious fault between two superconducting bending magnets. Due to the resulting damage, the LHC will not be operational again before the end of September 2009.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

What is the solar system? It is our Sun and everything that travels around it. Our solar system is elliptical in shape. That means it is shaped like an egg. The Sun is in the center of the solar system. Our solar system is always in motion. Eight known planets and their moons, along with comets , asteroids , and other space objects orbit the Sun. The Sun is the biggest object in our solar system. It contains more than 99% of the solar system's mass . Astronomers think the solar system is more than 4 billion years old.

Astronomers are now finding new objects far, far from the Sun which they call dwarf planets. Pluto , which was once called a planet, is now called a dwarf planet.

GREAT WALL OF CHINA

The Great Wall of China was built mainly to protect the Chinese Empire from the Mongolians and other invaders. It was first built in the 7th century BC when China was still divided into many small states. The construction of the Great wall had never ceased for nearly all the Chinese fuadal dynasties.


The Great Wall of China extends 4,000 miles westward: from the China Sea town of Shanhaiguan to Gansu province.

The majestic Great Wall was built with wisdom, dedication, blood, sweat and tears. It has been estimated that somewhere in the range of 2 to 3 million Chinese died as part of the centuries-long project of building the wall.

Nearly everyone has heard of the huge stone wall known as the Great Wall of China. As one of the UNESCO World Heritage Site in China, The Great Wall is not just a wall, but a symbol of bravery and wisdom of Chinese people.

CONSTRUCTION BEGINS

Construction of the canal began on January 1 , 1882 , though digging at Culebra did not begin until January 22 , 1882 [2] . A huge labor force was assembled; in 1888, this numbered about 20,000 men, nine-tenths of these being afro-Caribbean workers from the West Indies . Although extravagant rewards were given to French engineers who joined the canal effort, the huge death toll from disease made it difficult to retain them — they either left after short service, or died. The total death toll between 1881 and 1889 was estimated at over 22,000.

Even as early as 1885, it had become clear to many that a sea-level canal was impractical, and that an elevated canal with locks was the best answer; however, de Lesseps was stubborn, and it was not until October 1887 that the lock canal plan was adopted.

By this time, however, the mounting financial, engineering and mortality problems, coupled with frequent floods and mudslides , were making it clear that the project was in serious trouble. Work was pushed forward under the new plan until May 1889, when the company became bankrupt, and work was finally suspended on May 15 , 1889 . After eight years, the work was about two-fifths completed, and some $234,795,000 had been spent.

The collapse of the company was a major scandal in France, and the role of two Jewish speculators in the affair enabled Edouard Drumont , an anti-semite , to exploit the matter. 104 legislators were found to have been involved in the corruption and Jean Jaurès was commissioned by the French parliament to conduct an inquiry into the matter, completed in 1893 [3] .

HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL

The history of the Panama Canal goes back almost to the earliest explorers of the Americas. The narrow land bridge between North and South America offers a unique opportunity to create a water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This potential was recognized by the earliest colonists of Central America , and schemes for such a canal were floated several times in the subsequent years.
By the late-1800s, technological advances and commercial pressure advanced to the point where construction started in earnest. An initial attempt by France to build a sea-level canal failed, but only after a great amount of excavation was carried out. This was of use to the effort by the United States which finally resulted in the present Panama Canal in 1914. Along the way, the nation of Panama was created through its separation from Colombia in 1903. Today, the canal continues to be not only a viable commercial venture, but also a vital link in world shipping.

LIBERATOR, “THE MOST GLORIOUS TITLE”

On August 7, 1813 Bolivar arrived in Caracas, and the people acclaimed him liberator, confirming the title that had been conferred on him by the city of Merida.

This was the most treasured of all his honors, for in spite of the numerous acts of homage that were paid to him by the American nations, he continued to consider this, right up to the time of his death, the most precious thing he had achieved in his life. When some of his associates tried to tempt his vanity in order to force him to place a crown on his head, he recalled this homage of Caracas and merida, the prize of his educative work as a leader, and, repudiating the crown, he wrote to general Jose Antonio Paez, “I am not Napoleon, nor do I wish to be; neither do I wish to imitate Caesar, and even less iturbide. Such examples I consider unworthy of my own glory. The title of liberator is superior to all those that human pride has been the recipient of. Bolivar’s reference to Iturbide is extraordinarily significant, since Augustìn de Iturbide was an officer in the Spanish royalist army in Mexico who joined torces with the revolutionaries only to establish. In 1822, an independent royalist government in Mexico with himself as emperor. The following year he was forced into exile, but a year later returned to Mexico and was captured and shot.

Bolivar’s message to Paez was a reiteration of the message he had sent to the municipal government of Caracas on October 18, 1813 to thank them for the honor. At that time he said. “Liberator o Venezuela, for me a more glorious and satisfactory title than the scepter of all the empires of the earth”, good citizen, the only one that made all those who served the nation equal before the law, for this reason he said in his message to the congress of Angostura, “if I merit your approbation, I will have attained the sublime title of good citizen, to me preferable to that of liberator which Venezuela has given me, to that of pacifier which Colombia has given me, and to all that the entire world may be able to give”.

(TRADUCCIÓN) LIBERTADOR.”EL TITULO MÁS GLORIOSO”.

El 7 de agosto de 1.813, Bolívar llego a caracas, y el pueblo lo aclamo libertador, confirmando el titulo que le había sido conferido por la ciudad de Mérida.

Este fue el mas valioso de todos sus honores, pues a pesar de los numerosos actos de homenajes que le habían pagado o dado a el por parte de las naciones americanas el continuó o continuaba para considerar esto, justo arriba al tiempo de su muerte, la cosa mas preciosa que el había ejecutado o realizado en su vida. Cuando algunos de sus asociados trato tentar su vanidad a fin de forzarlo a colocarse una corona sobre su cabeza, el rehusó este homenaje de caracas y Mérida; el precio de su trabajo educativo como un lector, y repudiando la corona, el escribió el General José Antonio Páez, “Yo no soy Napoleón ni yo deseo serlo; tampoco deseo yo imitar a Cesar y menos aun Jess Iturbide. Tales ejemplos los considero yo no valiosos ni dignos de mi propia gloria. El titulo del libertador es superior a todos esos que el orgullo humano ha sido o estado en el recipiente de la referencia de Bolívar a Iturbide es extraordinariamente significante ya que Agustín de Iturbide era un oficial del ejercito realista Español en México, quien unió fuerza con los revolucionarios solo para establecer, en 1.822 un gobierno realista independiente en México con él mismo como emperador. El siguiente año el fue forzado al exilio, pero un año mas tarde regreso a México y fue capturado y apresado.

El mensaje de Bolívar a Páez era una reiteración del mensaje que el había enviado a el gobierno municipal de caracas el 18 de octubre de 1.813, donde les agradecía por el honor. En ese tiempo dijo el Libertador de Venezuela para mi es un glorioso titulo mas y titulo satisfactorio que el aceptador de todos los imperios de la tierra. Pero en el espíritu de la humildad cívica el llego a preferir el titulo de buen ciudadano, el único que hizo que todos esos quienes servían a la nación iguales ante la ley. Por esta razón, el dijo en su mensaje al congreso de Angostura si yo merezco su aprobación, yo habré logrado el sublime titulo de buen ciudadano, para mi preferible a ese de libertador el cual me ha dado Venezuela, a ese de pacificador con Colombia, que esta nación me ha dado y a todo ese que el mundo entero puede ser capaz de darme.